Quotes from Else Roesdahl

An element of the burial custom which today seems particularly macabre was the possibility of being buried with a companion, a male or female follower, presumably usually a slave, killed for the burial.

Lindisfarne, off the coast of Northumbria.

Bee-keeping was no doubt important in many places in Scandinavia. Honey was the only known sweetener, was used as a preservative and was an important ingredient in alcoholic drinks, while beeswax was necessary for certain metal-casting processes and it was also the best material for candles.

Odin's Valhalla was for chosen warriors,

the body of a wagon, to symbolize a whole wagon. Food and drink were usually placed in the graves. All this indicates that the realm of the dead was reached by a journey,

good missionaries practised these qualities in their way of life, by redeeming prisoners of war and slaves, for example, and giving alms to the poor.

Others were translated, for example, Churchton became Kirkby.

Christian documents praised missionaries for their sincere preaching of the Gospel, their piety, learning, good sense in daily life, chastity and good deeds. That they lived according to their teaching impressed the pagans. On a purely practical level, they often bought boy slaves in order to bring them up in the Christian way of life, and acquire acolytes. As Christianity is an exclusive religion, it was considered important to destroy pagan sanctuaries.

grand bridge-building was also considered an honourable and Christian deed.

Christianity brought completely new rituals, beliefs and rules of conduct, such as baptism, church services, bell-ringing, burial in consecrated churchyards without grave-goods, a belief in one God (or the Trinity), very strict regulations about marriage between relatives, while exposing unwanted children, eating horseflesh and worshipping the old gods were prohibited.

It is not known precisely when the earldom of Orkney became Christian, for the saga account of King Olaf Tryggvason's forced conversion in c. 995 may not be reliable. It may have happened gradually here and elsewhere in Scotland, according to personal choice, during the tenth century, when pagan burial customs were abandoned (Plate 24) and Christian funerary monuments were adopted.

On account of the roughness of its mountains and the immoderate cold, Norway is the most unproductive of all countries, suited only for herds.

Consequently, there are produced very valiant fighters… not softened by any overindulgence in fruits… the Danes… are just as poor… Poverty has forced them thus to go all over the world and from piratical raids they bring home in great abundance the riches of the lands.

During the tenth century the Vikings must have become Christians, for there are very few pagan graves from this period but many highly decorated stone crosses. Runic inscriptions of several of them tell that sometimes there were very close relations between Vikings and the local population, for some sons had Celtic names.

In this way they bear up under the unfruitfulness of their own country. Since accepting Christianity, however… they have already learnt… to be content with, their poverty…

The Vikings concentrated on monasteries, not because they had a vendetta against Christian religious communities, but simply because they could get the greatest loot here.

The violence of many Viking raids must not obscure the fact that the Vikings also enjoyed peaceful relations with the world around them, based on accepted norms for social behaviour and on special agreements.

Many Vikings joined the armies of foreign princes, and some chieftains achieved high rank. In Western Europe and the British Isles Christianity had to be accepted before any such office could be held and in order to marry a nobleman's daughter. Religion was the most important cultural distinction between Scandinavians and foreigners.

The enormous energy which characterized the Viking Age and which had sent waves of people across many parts of Europe had now dwindled, but the deeds of the Viking Age inspired Scandinavian literature, history and politics, and enhanced national pride and identity.

a plot that had become infertile could be built on, while a built-up area might have become well-manured and fertile from discarded waste and thus suitable for cultivation.

WOMEN, SEXUAL ROLES AND CHILDREN There is much evidence that women held their own in Viking society, even though men had the upper hand. Many exercised independent authority and were respected as members of their own social class, and their status may have improved during the Viking Age, since men were often away on long military expeditions or trading voyages, leaving the women in charge of everything at home.

Cattle, horses, pigs, sheep were common farm animals in Denmark, and goats were seen. Hens, geese and ducks were also kept.

In pagan times women were buried with accoutrements that reflected the female role in society. Instead of the tools, weapons and hunting dogs that accompanied men, women took household utensils, implements for needlework, spinning and weaving, jewellery and lapdogs with them on their journey to the next life.

Each building probably had a different function: dwelling, byre, store, barn, cook house (for baking, ale brewing, washing, preparing large quantities of food for feasts, or for slaughtering).